Editing Muhammad ﷺ (section)

== Meccan years ==
{{main|Muhammad in Mecca}}

=== Early life ===
{{See also|Mawlid|Family tree of Muhammad}}
{{Muhammad timeline in Mecca}}
[[File:Siyer-i_Nebi_223b.jpg|thumb|The birth of Muhammad in the 16th-century [[Siyer-i Nebi]]]]
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim<ref name="auto">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad Muhammad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209125352/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad|date=9 February 2017}} [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]. Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> was born in [[Mecca]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodinson |first1=Maxime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqR_mU0qpE4C&pg=PA38 |title=Muhammad: Prophet of Islam |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-86064-827-4 |page=38 |author-link1=Maxime Rodinson |access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> about the year 570,{{sfn|Conrad|1987}} and [[Mawlid|his birthday]] is believed to be in the month of [[Rabi' al-Awwal]].{{sfn|Esposito|2003}} He belonged to the [[Banu Hashim]] clan of the [[Quraysh]] tribe, which was a dominant force in western Arabia.{{sfn|Robin|2012|pp=286–287}} While his clan was one of the more distinguished in the tribe, it seems to have experienced a lack of prosperity during his early years.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}{{efn|See also {{qref|43|31|b=y}} cited in EoI; Muhammad.}}
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad was a ''[[hanif]]'', someone who professed [[monotheism]] in [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]. He is also claimed to have been a descendant of [[Ishmael]], son of [[Abraham]].<ref>Louis Jacobs (1995), p. 272</ref>{{cnf}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin|author-link= |date=2005 |title=Islam: The Basics (Volume 1) |url= |location= |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=16 |isbn= 9780415341066}}</ref>

The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in Arabic and it appears four times in the [[Quran]].<ref name=":4">Jean-Louis Déclais, ''Names of the Prophet'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref> He was also known as al-Amin ({{literal translation|faithful}}) when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given by people as a reflection of his nature{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=6}} or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e., a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina".{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=361}} Muhammad acquired the ''[[Kunya (Arabic)|kunya]]'' of Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years afterwards.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=51}}

Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with the [[Year of the Elephant]], when [[Abraha]], the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] viceroy in the former [[Himyar|Himyarite kingdom]], unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Mecca.<ref>Marr J.S., Hubbard E., Cathey J.T. (2014): The Year of the Elephant. <!-- figshare. -->
{{doi|10.6084/m9.figshare.1186833}}
Retrieved 21 October 2014 (GMT).</ref> Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred, would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth.{{sfn|Conrad|1987}}{{Sfn|Reynolds|2023|p=16}}{{Sfn|Johnson|2015|p=286}}{{sfn|Peters|2010|p=61}}{{Sfn|Muesse|2018|p=213}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=361}} Later Muslim scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's birth to elucidate the unclear passage about "the men of elephants" in Quran 105:1–5.{{Sfn|Reynolds|2023|p=16}}<ref>{{harvnb|Gibb et al.|1986|p=102}}</ref> ''The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity'' deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant expedition as a myth.{{Sfn|Johnson|2015|p=286}}

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Muhammad's father, [[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abdullah]], died almost six months before he was born.<ref name="Meri2004">{{cite book |last=Meri |first=Josef W. |author-link=Josef W. Meri |title=Medieval Islamic civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |access-date=3 January 2013 |volume=1 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=525 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114153019/http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Muhammad then stayed with his foster-mother, [[Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb]], and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother [[Aminah|Amina]] to illness and became an orphan.{{sfn|Watt|1971}}{{sfn|Watt|1960}} For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather, [[Abd al-Muttalib]], until the latter's death. He then came under the care of his uncle, [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abu Talib]], the new leader of the Banu Hashim.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=7}} Abu Talib's brothers assisted with Muhammad's learning — [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]], the youngest, trained Muhammad in [[archery]], [[swordsmanship]], and [[martial arts]]. Another uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas]], provided Muhammad with a job leading [[Caravan (travellers)|caravans]] on the northern segment of the route to Syria.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=18|loc=Chapter One: Mecca}}

The historical record of Mecca during Muhammad's early life is limited and fragmentary, making it difficult to distinguish between fact and legend.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=8}} Several Islamic narratives relate that Muhammad, as a child, went on a trading trip to Syria with his uncle Abu Talib and met a monk named [[Bahira]], who is said to have then foretold his prophethood.{{sfn|Roggema|2008|p=38–46}} There are multiple versions of the story with details that contradict each other.{{sfn|Roggema|2008|p=46}} All accounts of Bahira and his meeting with Muhammad have been considered fictitious by modern historians{{sfn|Roggema|2008|p=52}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=56}}{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=9}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=362}}{{sfn|Anthony|2020|p=73}} as well as by some medieval Muslim scholars such as [[al-Dhahabi]].{{sfn|Anthony|2020|p=73}}

Sometime later in his life, Muhammad proposed marriage to his cousin and first love, [[Fakhitah bint Abi Talib|Fakhita bint Abi Talib]]. But likely owing to his poverty, his proposal was rejected by her father, Abu Talib, who chose a more illustrious suitor.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=49}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=100}} When Muhammad was 25, his fortunes turned around; his business reputation caught the attention of his 40-year-old distant relative [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]], a wealthy businesswoman who had staked out a successful career as a merchant in the caravan trade industry. She asked him to take one of her caravans into Syria, after which she was so impressed by his competence in the expedition that she proposed marriage to him; Muhammad accepted her offer and remained monogamous with her until her death.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=20|loc=Chapter One: Mecca}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=50, 55}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=362}}

<div class="depiction">[[File:Mohammed kaaba 1315.jpg|thumb|left|Miniature from [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]'s ''[[Jami al-Tawarikh]]'', {{c.|lk=no|1315}}, illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-setting the [[Black Stone]] in 605 ([[Ilkhanate]] period)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=Wijdan |author-link=Wijdan Ali |date=August 1999 |journal=Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art |title=From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art |number=7 |url=http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041203232347/http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 December 2004 |page=3 |issn=0928-6802 }}</ref>]]</div>

In 605, the Quraysh decided to roof the [[Kaaba]], which had previously consisted only of walls. A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight. Amid concerns about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, "O goddess! Fear not! Our intentions are only for the best." With that, he began demolishing it. The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his unharmed continuation the next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval. According to a narrative collected by [[Ibn Ishaq]], when it was time to reattach the [[Black Stone]], a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege. It was determined that the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate. Muhammad took on this role, asking for a cloak. He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly elevate it to its position. He then personally secured it within the wall.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=79-81}}{{sfn|Wensinck|Jomier|1990|p=319}}

=== Beginnings of the Quran ===
{{See also|Muhammad's first revelation|History of the Quran|Wahy}}

[[File:Cave Hira.jpg|right|upright|thumb|The cave [[Cave of Hira|Hira]] in the mountain [[Jabal al-Nour]] where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelation]]

The financial security Muhammad enjoyed from [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]], his wealthy wife, gave him plenty of free time to spend in solitude in the [[Jabal al-Nour|cave of Hira]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=35}}{{sfn|Netton|2013|p=235}} According to Islamic tradition, one day in 610 CE, when he was 40 years old, the angel [[Gabriel]] appeared to him during his visit to the cave. The angel showed him a cloth with [[Āyah|Quranic verses]] on it and instructed him to read. When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel choked him forcefully, nearly suffocating him, and repeated the command. As Muhammad reiterated his inability to read, Gabriel choked him again in a similar manner. This sequence took place once more before Gabriel finally recited the verses, allowing Muhammad to memorize them.{{Sfn|Peterson|2007|p=51}}{{sfn|Klein|1906|p=7}}{{sfn|Wensinck|Rippen|2002}} These verses later constituted [[Quran 96:1-5]].{{sfn|Rosenwein|2018|p=148}}

When Muhammad came to his senses, he felt scared; he started to think that after all of this spiritual struggle, he had been visited by a [[jinn]], which made him no longer want to live. In desperation, Muhammad fled from the cave and began climbing up towards the top of the mountain to [[Suicide by jumping from height|jump to his death]]. But when he reached the summit, he experienced another [[Vision (spirituality)|vision]], this time seeing a mighty being that engulfed the horizon and stared back at Muhammad even when he turned to face a different direction. This was the [[Revelation in Islam|spirit of revelation]] (''[[rūḥ]]''), which Muhammad later referred to as [[Gabriel in Islam|Gabriel]]; it was not a naturalistic [[Angels in Islam|angel]], but rather a [[Transcendence (religion)#Islam|transcendent presence]] that resisted the ordinary limits of humanity and space.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=30|loc=Chapter One: Mecca}}<ref>[[Quran 53]]:5–9</ref><ref>[[Ibn Ishaq]], ''[[Sirat Rasul Allah]]'', 153, in Guillaume, ''Life of Muhammad''</ref>

Frightened and unable to understand the experience, Muhammad hurriedly staggered down the mountain to his wife [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]]. By the time he got to her, he was already crawling on his hands and knees, shaking wildly and crying "Cover me!", as he thrusted himself onto her lap. Khadijah wrapped him in a cloak and tucked him in her arms until his fears dissipated. She had absolutely no doubts about his revelation; she insisted it was real and not a jinn.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=30|loc=Chapter One: Mecca}} Muhammad was also reassured by Khadija's Christian cousin [[Waraqah ibn Nawfal|Waraqa ibn Nawfal]],{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=73}} who jubilantly exclaimed "Holy! Holy! If you have spoken the truth to me, O Khadijah, there has come to him the great divinity who came to Moses aforetime, and lo, he is the prophet of his people."{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=31|loc=Chapter One: Mecca}}<ref>[[Ibn Ishaq]], ''[[Sirat Rasul Allah]]'', 154, in Guillaume, ''Life of Muhammad''</ref> Khadija instructed Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned. When he appeared during their private time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time. After Khadija removed her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it was not [[Satan]] but an angel visiting him.{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=37}}{{sfn|Rosenwein|2018|p=146}}{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=73}}

Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a [[jinn]], a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations. Some historians posit that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=363}}{{Sfn|Peterson|2007|p=53–4}}

[[File:Miniatura_Maometto.jpg|thumb|left|A 16th-century [[Siyer-i Nebi]] image of angel [[Gabriel]] visiting Muhammad]]

Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide.{{sfn|Wensinck|Rippen|2002}}{{efn|''See:''
* Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7.
* Rodinson (2002), p. 71.}} On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of God. This encounter soothed Muhammad, and he returned home. Later, when there was another long break between revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and causing him to return home.{{Sfn|Murray|2011|p=552}}{{Sfn|Rāshid|2015|p=11}}

Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 31.</ref> The early Quranic revelations utilized approaches of cautioning non-believers with divine punishment, while promising rewards to believers. They conveyed potential consequences like famine and killing for those who rejected Muhammad's God and alluded to past and future calamities. The verses also stressed the imminent final judgment and the threat of hellfire for skeptics.{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=40–2}} Due to the complexity of the experience, Muhammad was initially very reluctant to tell others about his revelations;{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=32|loc=Chapter One: Mecca}} at first, he confided in only a few select family members and friends.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=1|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}} According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]] was the first to believe he was a prophet.{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=86}} She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], close friend [[Abu Bakr]], and adopted son [[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zaid]].{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=86}} As word of Muhammad's revelations continued to spread throughout the rest of his family, they became increasingly divided on the matter, with the youth and women generally believing in him, while most of the men in the elder generations were staunchly opposed.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=2|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}}

=== Opposition in Mecca ===
{{See also|Persecution of Muslims by Meccans}}
Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public;<ref name="Al-A'zami2" />{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|pp=37–39}} many of his first followers were women, [[freedmen]], servants, slaves, and other members of the [[lower social class]].{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=2|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}} These converts keenly awaited each new revelation from Muhammad; when he recited it, they all would repeat after him and memorize it, and the literate ones recorded it in writing.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=6|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}} Muhammad also introduced rituals to his group which included prayer (''[[salat]]'') with physical postures that embodied complete surrender (''[[Islam#Etymology|islam]]'') to [[God in Islam|God]], and almsgiving (''[[zakat]]'') as a requirement of the Muslim community (''[[ummah]]'').{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=14|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}} By this point, Muhammad's religious movement was known as ''tazakka'' ("purification").{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=15|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}}{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=68}}

Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of [[Mecca]], who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=364}}{{sfn|Lewis|2002|p=35–36}}{{Sfn|Muranyi|1998|p=102}}{{Sfn|Gordon|2005|p=120-121}} The [[Quraysh]] challenged [[Miracles of Muhammad|him to perform miracles]], such as bringing forth springs of water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as sufficient proof of God's majesty. Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why God had not bestowed treasure upon him. Others called on him to visit Paradise and return with tangible parchment scrolls of the [[Quran|Qur'an]]. But Muhammad asserted that the Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof.{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=40}}{{Sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=45–6}}

According to [[Amr ibn al-As]], several of the Quraysh gathered at [[Hijr Ismail|Hijr]] and discussed how they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad. They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods. Sometime later, Muhammad came, kissing the [[Black Stone]] and performing the ritual [[tawaf]]. As Muhammad passed by them, they reportedly said hurtful things to him. The same happened when he passed by them a second time. On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, "Will you listen to me, O Quraysh? By Him (God), who holds my life in His hand, I bring you slaughter." They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not a violent man. The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had said what they had heard from their companions. He answered yes, and one of them seized him by his cloak. [[Abu Bakr]] intervened, tearfully saying, "Would you kill a man for saying God is my Lord?" And they left him.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=113–4}}{{Sfn|Deming|2014|p=68}}{{Sfn|Ibn Kathir|Gassick|2000|p=342–3}}

The [[Quraysh]] attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers.<ref name="Cambridge 1977 362">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 36.</ref> A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the [[Banu Makhzum|Makhzum]] clan, known by the Muslims as [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]], went to Muhammad's uncle [[Abu Talib]], head of the [[Banu Hashim|Hashim]] clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum to disown Muhammad:{{Sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125}}{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=26|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}}

{{Blockquote|text="By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take the same position as we do, in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him."{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125–6}}{{sfn|Ibn Kathir| Gassick|2000|p=344}}}}

Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left. When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account."{{Sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125–7}}{{Sfn|Ibn Kathir|Gassick|2000|p=344–5}}

===Quraysh delegation to Yathrib===
{{See also|Seven Sleepers|Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran}}
The leaders of the Quraysh sent [[Nadr ibn al-Harith]] and [[Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt]] to [[Yathrib]] to seek the opinions of the Jewish [[rabbi]]s regarding Muhammad. The rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the spirit. If Muhammad answered correctly, they stated, he would be a Prophet; otherwise, he would be a liar. When they returned to [[Mecca]] and asked Muhammad the questions, he told them he would provide the answers the next day. However, 15 days passed without a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress. At some point later, the angel [[Gabriel]] came to Muhammad and provided him with the answers.{{sfn|Ṣallābī|2005|p=460–1}}{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75}}

In response to the first query, the Qur'an tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Qur'an 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the [[Seven Sleepers|Seven Sleepers of Ephesus]]. For the second query, the Qur'an speaks of [[Dhu al-Qarnayn]], literally "he of the two horns" (Qur'an 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate with the [[Alexander Romance]].{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75–6}}{{sfn|Beeston|1983|p=210}} As for the third query, concerning the nature of the spirit, the Qur'anic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension. Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers.{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75}} Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the [[Battle of Badr]], while other captives were held for ransom. As Uqba pleaded, "But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad responded, "Hell!"{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=114}}{{Sfn|Schroeder|2002|p=86}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=167–8}}{{sfn|Margoliouth|2010|p=135}}

=== Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses ===
{{Main|Migration to Abyssinia|Satanic Verses}}

In 615, Muhammad sent some of his followers to [[Migration to Abyssinia|emigrate]] to the Abyssinian [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and found a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor [[Aṣḥama ibn Abjar]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} Among those who departed were [[Umm Habiba]], the daughter of one of the Quraysh chiefs, [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], and her husband.{{Sfn|Cheikh|2015|p=32}} The Quraysh then sent two men to retrieve them. Because leatherwork at the time was highly prized in Abyssinia, they gathered a lot of skins and transported them there so they could distribute some to each of the kingdom's generals. But the king firmly rejected their request.{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=173–4}}

While [[Al-Tabari|Tabari]] and [[Ibn Hisham]] mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to [[Ibn Sa'd]]. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to [[Mecca]] before the event of [[Hijrah|Hijra]], while the majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time and went directly to [[Medina]] after the event of Hijra. These accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there. According to historian [[W. Montgomery Watt|W. M. Watt]], the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca. In [[Urwa ibn al-Zubayr|Urwa]]'s letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] and [[Umar]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}}

Along with many others,<ref name="Ahmed" /> Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number of [[Quraysh]], after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19–20), [[Satan]] put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are the high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest of [[Gabriel]], claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed.<ref>The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (2010), p. 35.</ref>{{efn|The aforementioned Islamic [[Satanic Verses#Tabarī's account|histories recount]] that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel [[Gabriel]], Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.}}{{efn|"Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35).}} The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}{{Sfn|Al-Tabari|1987|p=107–112}}

This [[Satanic Verses|Satanic verses]] incident was reported ''en masse'' and documented by nearly all of the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries,{{Sfn|Ahmed|2017|p=256–7}} which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the [[hadith]] movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the ''[[Ismah|isma]]'', which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of the early community has been reevaluated. As of the 20th century CE, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident.<ref name="Ahmed">{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Shahab |date=1998 |title=Ibn Taymiyyah and the Satanic Verses |journal=Studia Islamica |publisher=Maisonneuve & Larose |volume=87 |issue=87 |pages=67–124 |doi=10.2307/1595926 |jstor=1595926| issn = 0585-5292}}</ref> On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the [[criterion of embarrassment]]. Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and implicated Satan as the culprit.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}}

In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce a ban on the [[Banu Hashim]], prohibiting trade and marriage with them.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=36|loc=Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah}}{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=77}} Nevertheless, Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely. Despite facing increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate the streets and engage in public debates without being physically harmed.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=126}} At a later point, a faction within Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions, resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=129}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}}

=== Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if ===
{{Main|Muhammad's visit to Ta'if}}
In 619, Muhammad faced a period of sorrow. His wife, [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]], a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, died.{{sfn|Lapidus|2012|p=184}} In the same year, his uncle and guardian, [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abu Talib]], also died.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=134}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=22}} Despite Muhammad's persuasions to Abu Talib to embrace Islam on his deathbed, he clung to his polytheistic beliefs until the end.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=135}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=22}} Muhammad's other uncle, [[Abu Lahab]], who succeeded the [[Banu Hashim]] clan leadership, was initially willing to provide Muhammad with protection. However, upon hearing from Muhammad that Abu Talib and [[Abd al-Muttalib]] were destined for hell due to not believing in Islam, he withdrew his support.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=135}}<ref name="Holt">{{harvnb|Holt et al.|1977|p=39}}</ref>

Muhammad then went to [[Taif|Ta'if]] to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against the Meccans,{{Sfn|Towghi|1991|p=572}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}}{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=145}} but he was met with a response: "If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn't He protect you? And if [[Allah]] wished to send a prophet, couldn't He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?"{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=145–6}} Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him. However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs.{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=146}} He eventually evaded this chaos and persecution by escaping to the garden of [[Utbah ibn Rabi'ah]], a Meccan chief with a summer residence in Ta'if. Muhammad felt despair due to the unexpected rejection and hostility he received in the city; at this point, he realized he had no security or protection except from [[God in Islam|God]], so he began praying. Shortly thereafter, Utbah's Christian slave [[Addas]] stopped by and offered grapes, which Muhammad accepted. By the end of the encounter, Addas felt overwhelmed and kissed Muhammad's head, hands, and feet in recognition of his prophethood.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=3–4|loc=Chapter Three: Hijrah}}<ref>[[Muhammad ibn Ishaq]], ''[[Sirat Rasul Allah]]'', 280, in [[A. Guillaume]], trans. and ed., ''The Life of Muhammad'' (London, 1955), 193.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Watt|first= William Montgomery|author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date= 1988|title= The History of al-Ṭabarī Vol. 6: Muhammad at Mecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWYH0mHo2AwC |location= |publisher= [[SUNY Press]]|pages=116–117 |isbn=978-1-4384-2340-1}}</ref>

On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]], and he said, "They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well." Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to deliver a message to [[Al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq|Akhnas ibn Shariq]], a member of his mother's clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas declined, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of [[Quraysh]]. Muhammad then sent a message to [[Suhayl ibn Amir]], who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle. Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask [[Muṭʽim ibn ʽAdi|Mut'im ibn 'Adiy]], the chief of the [[Banu Nawfal]]. Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in the morning with his sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion. Mut'im replied, "Granting him protection, of course." Then Abu Jahl said, "We will protect whomever you protect."{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=148}}

=== Isra' and Mi'raj ===
{{Main|Isra' and Mi'raj}}
[[File:Domeoftherock1.jpg|thumb|Quranic inscriptions on the [[Dome of the Rock]]. It marks the spot where Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to [[Jannah|heaven]].<ref name="BloomBlair2009">{{cite book |author1=Jonathan M. Bloom |author2=Sheila Blair |title=The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76 |access-date=26 December 2011 |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |page=76 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020218/http://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76 |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref>]]

It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the [[Prophetic biography|''Sira'']] lay out the famous Isra' and Mi'raj. Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from [[Mecca]] to [[Jerusalem]], while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=366}} There is considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not address it directly.<ref name="Sells, Michael p.176">Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]], vol.1, p.176.</ref>

Quranic verse 17:1 recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer to the most distant place of worship. The [[Kaaba]], holy enclosure in Mecca, is widely accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to what constitutes "the farthest place of worship". Some modern scholars maintain that the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens. A later tradition, however, refers to it as ''Bayt al-Maqdis'', which is generally associated with Jerusalem. Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven.<ref>Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]], vol.1, p.176–7.</ref>

The dating of the events also differs from account to account. [[Ibn Sa'd]] recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of [[Ramadan]], 18 months before the [[Hijrah]], while the Isra' from Mecca to ''Bayt al-Maqdis'' took place on the 17th night of the [[Rabi' al-Thani|Last Rabi’ul]] before the hijrah. As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In [[Ibn Hisham]]'s account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. In contrast, [[al-Tabari]] included only the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to believe in the Messenger of God".{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=366}}

=== Migration to Medina (''Hijrah'') ===
{{Main|Hijrah}}
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As resistance to his proselytism in Mecca grew, Muhammad began to limit his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=244}} During this period, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from the Banu Khazraj. These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn would warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them. On hearing Muhammad's religious message, they said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=143}}{{sfn|Peters|2021|p=211}}

The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws. At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged their loyalty to him.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=143}} Muhammad then entrusted [[Mus'ab ibn Umayr]] to join them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. Come June 622, a significant clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba. In this gathering, seventy-five individuals from Yathrib (Medina) attended, including two women, representing all the converts of the oases.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=144}} Muhammad asked them to protect him as they would protect their wives and children. They concurred and gave him their oath,{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=245}} commonly referred to as the [[Second pledge at al-Aqabah|second pledge of Aqaba]] or the pledge of war. Paradise was Muhammad's promise to them in exchange for their loyalty.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=144}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=61}}

Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=144}}{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=245–7}} This event is known as the [[Hijrah]], which basically means "severing of kinship ties."{{sfn|Schacht et al.|1998|p=366}}{{Sfn|Nigosian|2004|p=10}} The departures spanned approximately three months. To avoid arriving in Medina by himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=144}} Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=246}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=49}}

Islamic tradition recounts that in light of the unfolding events, [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]] proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan. Having been informed about this by the angel [[Gabriel]], Muhammad asked his cousin [[Ali]] to lie in his bed covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him. [[Laylat al-mabit|That night]], the group of planned assassins approached Muhammad's home to carry out the attack but changed their minds upon hearing the voices of [[Sawdah bint Zam'ah|Sawdah]] and some of Muhammad's daughters, since it was considered shameful to kill a man in front of the women in his family. They instead chose to wait until Muhammad left the house the next morning; one of the men peeked into a window and saw what he believed to be Muhammad (but was actually Ali dressed in Muhammad's cloak), though unbeknownst to them, Muhammad had previously escaped from the back of the residence. When Ali went outside to go for a walk the following morning, the men realized they had been fooled, and the Quraysh consequently offered a 100-camel [[Bounty (reward)|bounty]] for the return of Muhammad's body, dead or alive.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=27|loc=Chapter Three: Hijrah}} After staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with [[Abu Bakr]] for Medina,{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=186–7}} which at the time was still named Yathrib; the two men arrived in Medina on 4 September 622.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=30|loc=Chapter Three: Hijrah}} The Meccan Muslims who undertook the migration were then called the [[Muhajirun]], while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=367}}