Editing Political aspects of Islam (section)

===20th and 21st centuries===
{{Main|1973 oil crisis|Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|Arab Cold War|Arab–Iranian conflict|Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab Spring|Arab Winter|War on Terror}}
{{Further|Antisemitism in the Arab world|Anti-Zionism|History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser|International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism|Iran-Saudi Arabia conflict|Petro-Islam|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world|Siege of Mecca in 1979|Six-Day War|Yom Kippur War|War of Attrition}}
[[File:Atatürk Kemal.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the [[founding father]] of the [[Republic of Turkey]], serving as its first [[President of Turkey|president]] from 1923 until his death in 1938. He undertook sweeping progressive [[Atatürk's Reforms|reforms]], which modernized Turkey into a secular, industrializing nation.<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/><ref>{{Citation |title=Atatürk, Kemal |date=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo |encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia |publisher=Philip's |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |isbn=9780199546091 |access-date=9 June 2019 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Books |first=Market House Books Market House |title=Atatürk, Kemal |date=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhointwentie00brig |work=Who's Who in the Twentieth Century |editor-last=Books |editor-first=Market House |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800916.001.0001 |isbn=9780192800916 |access-date=9 June 2019}}</ref>]]

Following [[World War I]], the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], and the subsequent [[abolition of the Caliphate]] by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], founder of the modern [[Republic of Turkey]],<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/> many Muslims perceived that the political power of their religion was in retreat. There was also concern that [[Westernization|Western ideas and influence were spreading]] throughout Muslim societies. This led to considerable resentment of the influence of the European powers. The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] was created in [[Egypt]] as a movement to resist and harry the British.

Between the 1950s and the 1960s, the predominant ideology within the [[Arab world]] was [[pan-Arabism]], which de-emphasized religion and encouraged the creation of [[Arab socialism|socialist]], [[secular state]]s based on [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]] ideologies such as [[Nasserism]] and [[Baathism]] rather than Islam.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Browers |author-first=Michaelle L. |year=2010 |chapter=Retreat from secularism in Arab nationalist and socialist thought |title=Political Ideology in the Arab World: Accommodation and Transformation |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |series=Cambridge Middle East Studies |volume=31 |pages=19–47 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511626814.003 |isbn=9780511626814 |lccn=2009005334 |s2cid=153779474}}</ref> However, governments based on Arab nationalism have found themselves facing [[economic stagnation]] and disorder. Increasingly, the borders of these states were seen as artificial colonial creations - which they were, having literally been drawn on a map by European colonial powers.

Today, many [[Islamism|Islamist]] and [[List of Islamic democratic political parties|Islamic democratic]] [[Political party|political parties]] exist in most [[Muslim-majority countries]], alongside numerous [[insurgent]] [[Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]], [[militant]] [[Islamism|Islamist]], and [[Islamic terrorism|terrorist]] movements and organizations.<ref name="Ayoob-Lussier 2020"/><ref name="Aydinli 2018"/><ref name="Badara 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Badara |first1=Mohamed |last2=Nagata |first2=Masaki |date=November 2017 |title=Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective |journal=[[Arab Law Quarterly]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=31 |issue=4 |doi=10.1163/15730255-12314024 |doi-access=free |issn=1573-0255 |pages=305–335}}</ref><ref name="Cook-Radical">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2015 |origyear=2005 |chapter=Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=Understanding Jihad |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |edition=2nd |pages=93–127 |isbn=9780520287327 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 |lccn=2015010201}}</ref><ref name="ZubaidahRahim 2006">{{cite journal |author-last=Zubaidah Rahim |author-first=Lily |year=2006 |title=Discursive Contest between Liberal and Literal Islam in Southeast Asia |editor1-last=Capano |editor1-first=Giliberto |editor2-last=Howlett |editor2-first=Michael P. |editor2-link=Michael P. Howlett |editor3-last=Jarvis |editor3-first=Darryl S. L. |editor4-last=Ramesh |editor4-first=M. |journal=[[Policy and Society]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=77–98 |doi=10.1016/S1449-4035(06)70091-1 |doi-access=free |issn=1839-3373 |lccn=2009205416 |oclc=834913646 |s2cid=218567875}}</ref> Both of the following terms, [[Islamic democracy]] and [[Islamic fundamentalism]], lump together a large variety of political groups with varying aims, histories, ideologies, and backgrounds.

====Contemporary movements====
Some common political currents in Islam include:
*[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|Traditionalism]], which accepts traditional commentaries on the [[Quran]], [[Hadith|''hadith'' literature]], and ''[[sunnah]]'', and "takes as its basic principle imitation (''[[taqlid]]''), that is, refusal to innovate", follows one of the [[Madhhab|four legal schools]] or ''Madh'hab'' ([[Shafiʽi school|Shafiʽi]], [[Maliki]], [[Hanafi]], [[Hanbali]]), and may include [[Sufism]]. An example of Sufi traditionalism is the [[Barelvi|Barelvi school]] in [[Pakistan]].<ref>Olivier Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'', (1994) pp.30–31</ref>
*[[Islamic fundamentalism|Fundamentalist reformism]] or [[Islamic revival|revivalism]], which criticizes the [[Kalam|Islamic scholastic tradition]], the [[Tafsir|commentaries]], popular religious practices such as [[Ziyarat|visitation to]] and [[Veneration#Islam|veneration]] of the [[Wali|shrines and tombs of Muslim saints]], perceived deviations and superstitions; it aims to return to the [[Islamic holy books|founding scriptures of Islam]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Arjomand |first=Said A. |title=The Search for Fundamentals |year=1995 |chapter=The Search for Fundamentals and Islamic Fundamentalism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx6hBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |editor1-last=van Vucht Tijssen |editor1-first=Lieteke |editor2-last=Berting |editor2-first=Jan |editor3-last=Lechner |editor3-first=Frank |location=[[Dordrecht]] |publisher=[[Springer Verlag]] |doi=10.1007/978-94-015-8500-2_2 |pages=27–39 |isbn=978-0-7923-3542-9}}</ref> This fundamentalist reformism generally developed in response to a perceived external threat (for example, the [[Hindu–Islamic relations|influence of Hinduism on Islam]]). 18th-century examples of fundamentalist Muslim reformers are [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] in [[British Raj|British India]]<ref name="Ibrahim 2006">{{cite journal |last=Ibrahim |first=Hassan Ahmed |date=January 2006 |title=Shaykh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and Shāh Walī Allāh: A Preliminary Comparison of Some Aspects of their Lifes and Careers |editor1-last=Son |editor1-first=Joonmo |editor2-last=Thompson |editor2-first=Eric C. |journal=Asian Journal of Social Science |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=103–119 |doi=10.1163/156853106776150126 |eissn=1568-5314 |issn=1568-4849 |jstor=23654402}}</ref> and [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] in the [[Arabian peninsula]],<ref name="Ibrahim 2006"/><ref name="Laoust2012">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Laoust |first=H. |title=Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb |orig-date=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref><ref name="Haykel2013">{{cite book |last=Haykel |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Haykel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA231 |chapter=Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703-92) |year=2013 |editor1-last=Böwering |editor1-first=Gerhard |editor1-link=Gerhard Böwering |editor2-last=Crone |editor2-first=Patricia |editor2-link=Patricia Crone |editor3-last=Kadi |editor3-first=Wadad |editor4-last=Mirza |editor4-first=Mahan |editor5-last=Stewart |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-link=Devin J. Stewart |editor6-last=Zaman |editor6-first=Muhammad Qasim |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton, NJ]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=231–232 |isbn=978-0-691-13484-0 |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Esposito2004">{{cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |year=2004 |title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA123 |chapter=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791) |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=123 |isbn=0-19-512559-2 |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Oxford2020">{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712051853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 12, 2016 |title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online |date=2020 |website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref> founder of the Islamic doctrine and movement known as [[Wahhabism]].<ref name="Laoust2012" /><ref name="Haykel2013" /><ref name="Esposito2004" /><ref name="Oxford2020" /><ref>Olivier Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'' (1994), p. 31.</ref> [[Salafi movement|Salafism]] and [[Wahhabism]] [[International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism|worldwide]], the [[Deobandi|Deobandi school]] in [[South Asia]] (mainly [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]), [[Ahl-i Hadith]] and [[Tablighi Jamaat]] in [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and Pakistan are modern examples of fundamentalist reformism and revivalism.
*[[Islamism]] or [[political Islam]], embracing a return to the ''[[sharia]]'' or Islamic law but adopting Western terminology such as [[revolution]], [[ideology]], [[politics]], and [[democracy]], and taking a more liberal attitude towards issues like ''[[jihad]]'' and [[women's rights]].<ref>Olivier Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'' (1994), pp. 35-37.</ref> Contemporary examples include the [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami]], [[Muslim Brotherhood]], [[Iranian Revolution|Iranian Islamic Revolution]], [[Masyumi]] party, [[United Malays National Organisation]], [[Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party]] and [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)]].
*[[Liberalism and progressivism within Islam|Liberal and progressive movements within Islam]] generally define themselves in opposition to Islamist and Islamic fundamentalist political movements, but often embrace many of their [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] and Islam-inspired liberal reformist elements.<ref name="Kurzman 1998">{{cite book |author-last=Kurzman |author-first=Charles |author-link=Charles Kurzman |year=1998 |chapter=Liberal Islam and Its Islamic Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA1 |editor-last=Kurzman |editor-first=Charles |title=Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=1–26 |isbn=9780195116229 |oclc=37368975}}</ref> Liberal Muslims affirm the promotion of progressive values such as [[democracy]], [[gender equality]], [[human rights]], [[LGBT rights]], [[women's rights]], [[religious pluralism]], [[Interfaith marriage in Islam|interfaith marriage]],<ref name="Leeman 2009">{{cite journal |last=Leeman |first=A. B. |date=Spring 2009 |title=Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions |url=https://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Indiana Law Journal]] |location=[[Bloomington, Indiana]] |publisher=[[Indiana University Maurer School of Law]] |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=743–772 |issn=0019-6665 |s2cid=52224503 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123062516/https://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2018 |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Jahangir2017">{{cite news |last=Jahangir |first=Junaid |date=21 March 2017 |title=Muslim Women Can Marry Outside The Faith |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/junaid-jahangir/muslim-women-marriage_b_15472982.html |url-status=live |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325020231/https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/junaid-jahangir/muslim-women-marriage_b_15472982.html |archive-date=25 March 2017 |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref> [[freedom of expression]], [[freedom of thought]], and [[freedom of religion]];<ref name="Kurzman 1998"/> opposition to [[theocracy]] and total rejection of Islamism and Islamic fundamentalism;<ref name="Kurzman 1998" /> and a modern view of [[Islamic theology]], [[Islamic ethics|ethics]], ''[[sharia]]'', [[Islamic culture|culture]], tradition, and other ritualistic practices in Islam.<ref name="Kurzman 1998" /> Liberal Islam emphasizes the re-interpretation of the Islamic scriptures in order to preserve their relevance in the 21st century.<ref name="ZubaidahRahim 2006" /><ref name="Kurzman 1998" />

====Shīʿa—Sunnī differences====
{{Main|Shia–Sunni relations}}
{{Further|Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|Sectarian violence among Muslims}}

According to the [[Iranian-American]] academic [[Vali Nasr]], which serves as Majid Khaddouri Professor of International Affairs and Middle East Studies at the [[Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies]] (SAIS), political tendencies of [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa]] and [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]] Islamic ideologies differ, with [[Islamic fundamentalism|Sunnī fundamentalism]] "in [[Pakistan]] and much of the [[Arab world]]" being "far from politically revolutionary", primarily focused on attempting to [[Islamization|Islamicize]] the political establishment rather than trying to change it through revolutionary struggle, whereas the Shīʿīte conception of [[political Islam]] is strongly influenced by [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] and his talk of the oppression of the poor and class war, which characterized the success of the [[Islamic Revolution]] in [[Iran]] (1978–1979):<ref name="Nasr 2007" />

{{Blockquote
|text=With the [[Iranian Revolution|Shia awakening of Iran]], the years of sectarian tolerance were over. What followed was a Sunni-versus-Shia contest for dominance, and it grew intense. [...] The revolution even moved leftists in [[Muslim-majority countries]] such as [[Indonesia]], [[Turkey]], and [[Lebanon]] to look at Islam with renewed interest. After all, in Iran, Islam had succeeded where leftist ideologies had failed. [...] But admiration for what had happened in Iran did not equal acceptance of Iranian leadership. Indeed, Islamic activists outside of Iran quickly found Iranian revolutionaries to be arrogant, offputting, and drunk on their own success. Moreover, [[Islamic fundamentalism|Sunni fundamentalism]] in [[Pakistan]] and much of the [[Arab world]] was far from politically revolutionary. It was rooted in conservative religious impulses and the bazaars, mixing mercantile interests with religious values. As the French scholar of contemporary Islam [[Gilles Kepel]] puts it, it was less to tear down the existing system than to give it a fresh, thick coat of "Islamic green" paint. [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Khomeini]]'s [[Islamic fundamentalism in Iran|fundamentalism]], by contrast, was "red"—that is, genuinely revolutionary.<ref name="Nasr 2007" />
}}

The American [[political analyst]] and author [[Graham E. Fuller]], specialized in the study of [[Islamism]] and [[Islamic extremism]], has also noted that he found "no mainstream Islamist organization (with the exception of [Shīʿa] Iran) with radical social views or a revolutionary approach to the social order apart from the imposition of legal justice."<ref>Fuller, Graham E., ''The Future of Political Islam'', Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.26</ref>

====Guardianship of the Jurist of Shi'i Islam====
{{see|Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist}}
Guardianship of the Jurist (''Wilāyat al-Faqīh'') is a concept in [[Twelver]] [[Shia Islam]]ic [[sharia|law]] that holds that in the [[Occultation (Islam)|absence]] of (what Twelvers believe is) the religious and political leader of Islam—the "infallible [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imam]]", who Shi'a believe will reappear sometime before [[Judgement Day in Islam|Judgement Day]]) -- righteous Shi'i jurists (''[[faqīh]]''),<ref name="JoAOS-1991-549">{{cite journal |title=Review by Hossein Modarressi, by THE JUST RULER OR THE GUARDIAN JURIST: AN ATTEMPT TO LINK TWO DIFFERENT SHICITE CONCEPTS by Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=July–September 1991 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=549–562 |jstor=604271 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/604271 |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> should administer "some" of the "religious and social affairs" of the Shi'i community. In its "absolute" form—the form advanced by the [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]]<ref name="VeF-Encyclo.com">{{cite web |last1=Algar |first1=Hamid |last2=Hooglund |first2=Eric |title=VELAYAT-E FAQIH Theory of governance in Shiʿite Islam. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/velayat-e-faqih |website=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> and the basis of government in [[History of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Islamic Republic of Iran]]—the state and society are ruled by an Islamic jurist ([[Ali Khamenei]] as of 2022).

A variation of [[Islamism]], the theory holds that since [[sharia]] law has everything needed to rule a state (whether ancient or modern),<ref name=IaR1981:137-8>[[#IaR1981|Khomeini, ''Islamic Government'', 1981]]: p.137-8</ref> and any other basis of governance will lead to injustice and sin,<ref name=IaR1981:31-33>[[#IaR1981|Khomeini, ''Islamic Government'', 1981]]: p.31-33</ref> a state must be ruled according to sharia and the person who should rule is an expert in sharia.<ref>Abrahamian, Ervand, ''Khomeinism : Essays on the Islamic Republic'' by Ervand Abrahamian, p.34-5</ref>

The theory of [[sovereignty]] of the Guardianship of the Jurist (in fact of all Islam) explained by at least one conservative Shi'i scholar ([[Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi]]), is contrasted with the theory of sovereignty in "most of the schools of political philosophy and other cultures". Non-Muslim cultures hold that "every man is free", and in democratic cultures in particular, "sovereignty ... belongs to the people". A ruler and government must have the consent of the governed to have [[Legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]]. Whereas in fact, sovereignty is God's. The "entire universe and whatever in it belongs to God ... the Exalted, and all their movements and acts must have to be in accordance with the command or prohibition of the Real Owner". Consequently, human beings "have no right to rule over others or to choose someone to rule", i.e. choose someone to rule themselves.<ref name="Cursory-2010">{{cite book |last1=Mesbah-Yazdi |first1=Mohammad-Taqi |editor1-first=Sayyid ‘Abbas |editor1-last=Husayni |title=A Cursory Glance at the Theory of Wilayat al-Faqih |date=2010 |publisher=Ahlul Bayt World Assembly/Al-Islam.org |url=https://www.al-islam.org/cursory-glance-theory-wilayat-al-faqih-muhammad-taqi-misbah-yazdi/chapter-1-wilayat-al-faqih |access-date=25 August 2022 |chapter=1: Wilayat al-Faqih, Exigency and Presuppositions}}</ref> In an Islamic state, rule must be according to God's law and the ruler must be best person to enforce God's law. The people's "consent and approval" are valuable for developing and strengthening the Islamic government but irrelevant for its legitimacy.<ref name="Cursory-2010"/>