Editing Political aspects of Islam (section)

===Reaction to European colonialism===
In the 19th century, [[European colonization]] of the Muslim world coincided with the [[French conquest of Algeria]] (1830), the [[Siege of Delhi|fall of the Mughal Empire]] in [[Colonial India|India]] (1857), the [[Russian Empire|Russian incursions]] into the [[Caucasian War|Caucasus]] (1828) and [[The Great Game|Central Asia]] (1830-1895), and ultimately in the 20th century with the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] (1908–1922),<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/> to which the Ottoman officer and [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish revolutionary]] statesman [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the [[Republic of Turkey]], a [[Modernity|modern]], [[secular democracy]]<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> (see [[Abolition of the Caliphate]], [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate]], [[Kemalism]], and [[Secularism in Turkey]]).<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/>

The first Muslim reaction to European colonization was of "peasant and religious", not urban origin. "Charismatic leaders", generally members of the ''[[ulama]]'' or leaders of religious orders, launched the call for ''[[jihad]]'' and formed tribal coalitions. ''[[Sharia]]'', in defiance of local common law, was imposed to unify tribes. Examples include [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al-Qadir]] in [[Algeria]], [[Muhammad Ahmad]] in [[Sudan]], [[Imam Shamil|Shamil in the Caucasus]], the [[Senussi]] in [[Libya]] and [[Chad]], Mullah-i Lang in [[Afghanistan]], the [[Akhund of Swat]] in India, and later, [[Abd el-Krim el-Khattabi|Abd al-Karim]] in [[Morocco]]. All these movements eventually failed "despite spectacular victories such as the [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army|massacre]] of the British army in Afghanistan in 1842 and the taking of [[Muhammad Ahmad#Khartoum|Kharoum]] in 1885."<ref>Roy, Olivier, ''The Failure of Political Islam'' by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, p.32</ref>

[[File:Sharif Husayn.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali]], the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]] from 1908 to 1924 and [[King of the Hejaz]] from 1916 to 1924.]]
[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali]], the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]] from 1908, enthroned himself as [[King of the Hejaz]] after proclaiming the [[Arab Revolt|Great Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]],<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/> and continued to hold both of the offices of Sharif and King from 1916 to 1924. At the end of his reign he also briefly laid claim to the office of [[Sharifian Caliphate|Sharifian Caliph]]; he was a [[Hashemites#Family tree|37th-generation direct descendant]] of [[Muhammad]], as he belongs to the [[Hashemite]] family. A member of the Dhawu Awn clan ([[Banu Hashim]]) from the [[Qatadid]] emirs of Mecca, he was perceived to have rebellious inclinations and in 1893 was summoned to [[Istanbul]], where he was kept on the Council of State. In 1908, in the aftermath of the [[Young Turk Revolution]], he was appointed Emir of Mecca by the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman sultan]] [[Abdul Hamid II]]. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, he proclaimed the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, accusing the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] of violating tenets of Islam and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. Shortly after the outbreak of the revolt, Hussein declared himself "King of the Arab Countries". However, his [[Pan-Arabism|pan-Arab aspirations]] were not accepted by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]], who recognized him only as King of the Hejaz. In the [[aftermath of World War I]], Hussein refused to ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]], in protest at the [[Balfour Declaration]] and the establishment of British and French [[League of Nations mandate|mandates]] in [[Mandatory Syria|Syria]], [[Mandatory Iraq|Iraq]], and [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]]. He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus deprived himself of British support when his kingdom was attacked by [[Ibn Saud]]. After the Kingdom of Hejaz was invaded by the [[House of Saud|Al Saud]]-[[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] armies of the [[Ikhwan]], on 23 December 1925 King Hussein bin Ali surrendered to the Saudis, bringing both the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sharifate of Mecca to an end.<ref name="Peters 1994">{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis E. |year=2017 |origyear=1994 |title=Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397 |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |series=Princeton Legacy Library |page=397 |isbn=9781400887361 |oclc=468351969}}</ref>

The second Muslim reaction to European encroachment later in the century and early 20th century was not violent resistance but the adoption of some Western  political, social, cultural and technological ways. Members of the urban elite, particularly in [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], and [[Turkey]], advocated and practiced "Westernization".<ref name=Feldman/> The failure of the attempts at political westernization, according to some, was exemplified by the [[Tanzimat]] reorganization of the Ottoman rulers. ''Sharia'' was codified into law (which was called the [[Mecelle]]) and an elected legislature was established to make law. These steps took away the ''[[ulama]]'''s role of "discovering" the law and the formerly powerful scholar class weakened and withered into religious functionaries, while the legislature was suspended less than a year after its inauguration and never recovered to replace the Ulama as a separate "branch" of government providing [[separation of powers]].<ref name=Feldman>Feldman, Noah, ''Fall and Rise of the Islamic State'', Princeton University Press, 2008, p.71-76</ref> The "paradigm of the executive as a force unchecked by either the sharia of the scholars or the popular authority of an elected legislature became the dominant paradigm in most of the Sunni Muslim world in the 20th century."<ref name=feldman-fall-79>Feldman, Noah, ''Fall and Rise of the Islamic State'', Princeton University Press, 2008, p.79</ref>