Editing Political aspects of Islam (section)

==Modern era==

===Reaction to European colonialism===
In the 19th century, [[European colonization]] of the Muslim world coincided with the [[French conquest of Algeria]] (1830), the [[Siege of Delhi|fall of the Mughal Empire]] in [[Colonial India|India]] (1857), the [[Russian Empire|Russian incursions]] into the [[Caucasian War|Caucasus]] (1828) and [[The Great Game|Central Asia]] (1830-1895), and ultimately in the 20th century with the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] (1908–1922),<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/> to which the Ottoman officer and [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish revolutionary]] statesman [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the [[Republic of Turkey]], a [[Modernity|modern]], [[secular democracy]]<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> (see [[Abolition of the Caliphate]], [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate]], [[Kemalism]], and [[Secularism in Turkey]]).<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/>

The first Muslim reaction to European colonization was of "peasant and religious", not urban origin. "Charismatic leaders", generally members of the ''[[ulama]]'' or leaders of religious orders, launched the call for ''[[jihad]]'' and formed tribal coalitions. ''[[Sharia]]'', in defiance of local common law, was imposed to unify tribes. Examples include [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al-Qadir]] in [[Algeria]], [[Muhammad Ahmad]] in [[Sudan]], [[Imam Shamil|Shamil in the Caucasus]], the [[Senussi]] in [[Libya]] and [[Chad]], Mullah-i Lang in [[Afghanistan]], the [[Akhund of Swat]] in India, and later, [[Abd el-Krim el-Khattabi|Abd al-Karim]] in [[Morocco]]. All these movements eventually failed "despite spectacular victories such as the [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army|massacre]] of the British army in Afghanistan in 1842 and the taking of [[Muhammad Ahmad#Khartoum|Kharoum]] in 1885."<ref>Roy, Olivier, ''The Failure of Political Islam'' by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, p.32</ref>

[[File:Sharif Husayn.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali]], the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]] from 1908 to 1924 and [[King of the Hejaz]] from 1916 to 1924.]]
[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali]], the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]] from 1908, enthroned himself as [[King of the Hejaz]] after proclaiming the [[Arab Revolt|Great Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]],<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/> and continued to hold both of the offices of Sharif and King from 1916 to 1924. At the end of his reign he also briefly laid claim to the office of [[Sharifian Caliphate|Sharifian Caliph]]; he was a [[Hashemites#Family tree|37th-generation direct descendant]] of [[Muhammad]], as he belongs to the [[Hashemite]] family. A member of the Dhawu Awn clan ([[Banu Hashim]]) from the [[Qatadid]] emirs of Mecca, he was perceived to have rebellious inclinations and in 1893 was summoned to [[Istanbul]], where he was kept on the Council of State. In 1908, in the aftermath of the [[Young Turk Revolution]], he was appointed Emir of Mecca by the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman sultan]] [[Abdul Hamid II]]. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, he proclaimed the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, accusing the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] of violating tenets of Islam and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. Shortly after the outbreak of the revolt, Hussein declared himself "King of the Arab Countries". However, his [[Pan-Arabism|pan-Arab aspirations]] were not accepted by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]], who recognized him only as King of the Hejaz. In the [[aftermath of World War I]], Hussein refused to ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]], in protest at the [[Balfour Declaration]] and the establishment of British and French [[League of Nations mandate|mandates]] in [[Mandatory Syria|Syria]], [[Mandatory Iraq|Iraq]], and [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]]. He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus deprived himself of British support when his kingdom was attacked by [[Ibn Saud]]. After the Kingdom of Hejaz was invaded by the [[House of Saud|Al Saud]]-[[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] armies of the [[Ikhwan]], on 23 December 1925 King Hussein bin Ali surrendered to the Saudis, bringing both the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sharifate of Mecca to an end.<ref name="Peters 1994">{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis E. |year=2017 |origyear=1994 |title=Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397 |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |series=Princeton Legacy Library |page=397 |isbn=9781400887361 |oclc=468351969}}</ref>

The second Muslim reaction to European encroachment later in the century and early 20th century was not violent resistance but the adoption of some Western  political, social, cultural and technological ways. Members of the urban elite, particularly in [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], and [[Turkey]], advocated and practiced "Westernization".<ref name=Feldman/> The failure of the attempts at political westernization, according to some, was exemplified by the [[Tanzimat]] reorganization of the Ottoman rulers. ''Sharia'' was codified into law (which was called the [[Mecelle]]) and an elected legislature was established to make law. These steps took away the ''[[ulama]]'''s role of "discovering" the law and the formerly powerful scholar class weakened and withered into religious functionaries, while the legislature was suspended less than a year after its inauguration and never recovered to replace the Ulama as a separate "branch" of government providing [[separation of powers]].<ref name=Feldman>Feldman, Noah, ''Fall and Rise of the Islamic State'', Princeton University Press, 2008, p.71-76</ref> The "paradigm of the executive as a force unchecked by either the sharia of the scholars or the popular authority of an elected legislature became the dominant paradigm in most of the Sunni Muslim world in the 20th century."<ref name=feldman-fall-79>Feldman, Noah, ''Fall and Rise of the Islamic State'', Princeton University Press, 2008, p.79</ref>

===Modern political ideal of the Islamic state===
{{Main|Islamic state}}
{{See also|Islamism|Islamization|Political Islam|Political quietism in Islam}}
{{Islamism sidebar |expanded=Concepts}}

In addition to the legitimacy given by medieval scholarly opinion, nostalgia for the days of successful Islamic empires simmered under later [[Western colonialism]]. This nostalgia played a major role in the Islamist political ideal of the [[Islamic state]], a state in which Islamic law is preeminent.<ref>{{citation|title=Liberal Democracy and Political Islam: the Search for Common Ground|last=Benhenda|first=M.|date=20 September 2009 |ssrn=1475928}}</ref> The Islamist political program is generally to be accomplished by re-shaping the governments of existing Muslim nation-states; but the means of doing this varies greatly across movements and circumstances. Many [[Islamic democracy|democratic Islamist movements]], such as the [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami]] and [[Muslim Brotherhood]], have used the democratic process and focus on votes and coalition-building with other political parties.

[[File:Hamid Mir interviewing Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri 2001.jpg|thumb|right|[[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] of [[al-Qaeda]] have promoted the overthrow of secular governments.<ref name="Gallagher 2021">{{cite book |editor1-last=Gallagher |editor1-first=Eugene V. |editor2-last=Willsky-Ciollo |editor2-first=Lydia |editor1-link=Eugene V. Gallagher |year=2021 |chapter=Al-Qaeda |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Id4aEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=New Religions: Emerging Faiths and Religious Cultures in the Modern World |location=[[Santa Barbara, California]] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |volume=1 |pages=13–15 |isbn=978-1-4408-6235-9}}</ref><ref name="Aydinli 2018">{{cite book |last=Aydınlı |first=Ersel |year=2018 |origyear=2016 |title=Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists |chapter=The Jihadists pre-9/11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hq1TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=1st |series=Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics |pages=65–109 |isbn=978-1-315-56139-4 |lccn=2015050373}}</ref><ref name="Moussalli 2012">{{cite book |author-last=Moussalli |author-first=Ahmad S. |year=2012 |chapter=Sayyid Qutb: Founder of Radical Islamic Political Ideology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D-LfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |editor-last=Akbarzadeh |editor-first=Shahram |title=Routledge Handbook of Political Islam |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=1st |pages=24–26 |isbn=9781138577824 |lccn=2011025970}}</ref>]]
[[Sayyid Qutb]], an Egyptian Islamist ideologue and prominent figurehead of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in Egypt, was influential in promoting the [[Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamist]] [[ideology]] in the 1960s.<ref name="Polk-Qutb">{{cite book |last=Polk |first=William R. |author-link=William R. Polk |year=2018 |chapter=The Philosopher of the Muslim Revolt, Sayyid Qutb |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozFDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA370 |title=Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and [[London]] |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |series=The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series |pages=370–380 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.40 |isbn=978-0-300-22290-6 |jstor=j.ctv1bvnfdq.40 |lccn=2017942543}}</ref> When he was executed by the [[Egyptian government]] under the [[History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser|regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser]], [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] formed the organization [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] to replace the government with an Islamic state that would reflect Qutb's ideas for the [[Islamic revival]] that he yearned for.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[The Looming Tower]]|author=Lawrence Wright|author-link=Lawrence Wright|publisher=Knopf|year=2006|isbn=0-375-41486-X|chapter=2}}</ref> The [[Qutbism|Qutbist ideology]] has been influential on [[Jihadism|jihadist movements]] and [[Islamic terrorism|Islamic terrorists]] that seek to overthrow secular governments, most notably [[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] of [[al-Qaeda]],<ref name="Gallagher 2021" /><ref name="Aydinli 2018" /><ref name="Moussalli 2012" /><ref name="Cook 2015">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2015 |origyear=2005 |chapter=Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=Understanding Jihad |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |edition=2nd |pages=102–110 |isbn=9780520287327 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 |lccn=2015010201}}</ref> as well as the [[Salafi jihadism|Salafi-jihadi]] terrorist group [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh]].<ref name="Baele 2019" /> Moreover, Qutb's books have been frequently been cited by Osama bin Laden and [[Anwar al-Awlaki]].<ref name="NYT: path to terror">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/world/09awlaki.html?pagewanted=5&hp|title=Imam's Path From Condemning Terror to Preaching Jihad|author1=Scott Shane |author2=Souad Mekhennet |author3=Robert F. Worth |name-list-style=amp |date=8 May 2010|work=The New York Times|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Irwin">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/01/afghanistan.terrorism3 Robert Irwin, "Is this the man who inspired Bin Laden?"] ''[[The Guardian]]'' (1 November 2001).</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/23/magazine/the-philosopher-of-islamic-terror.html Paul Berman, "The Philosopher of Islamic Terror"], ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' (23 March 2003).</ref><ref>[https://www.pbs.org/weta/crossroads/incl/Out-of-the-Shadows.pdf Out of the Shadows: Getting ahead of prisoner radicalization]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwhce.org/evolutionofalqaeda.html|title=The Evolution of Al-Qaeda: Osama bin Laden and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi|author=Trevor Stanley|access-date=26 February 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/07spring/eikmeier.htm Qutbism: An Ideology of Islamic-Fascism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609120804/http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/parameters/07spring/eikmeier.htm |date=2007-06-09}} by Dale C. Eikmeier. From ''[[Parameters (journal)|Parameters]]'', Spring 2007, pp. 85–98.</ref>

[[Sayyid Qutb]] could be said to have founded the actual movement of [[Islamic extremism|radical Islam]].<ref name="Moussalli 2012" /><ref name="Polk-Qutb" /><ref name="Cook 2015" /> Radical Islamic movements such as al-Qaeda and the [[Taliban]] embrace the militant Islamist ideology, and were prominent for being part of the [[Soviet–Afghan War|anti-Soviet resistance in Afghanistan]] during the 1980s.<ref name=":0" /> Both of the aforementioned militant Islamist groups had a role to play in the [[September 11 attacks|September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001]], presenting both "near" and "far" enemies as regional governments and the United States respectively.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The World Transformed, 1945 to the Present|last=Hunt|first=Michael|publisher=Oxford|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-937102-0|location=New York City|pages=495}}</ref> They also took part in the [[2004 Madrid train bombings|bombings in Madrid in 2004]] and [[7 July 2005 London bombings|London in 2005]]. The recruits often came from the ranks of [[Jihadism|jihadists]], from [[Egypt]], [[Algeria]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Morocco]].<ref name=":0" />

[[Jihadism]] has been defined otherwise as a [[neologism]] for [[militant]], predominantly [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]] Islamic movements that use [[Violent extremism|ideologically-motivated violence]] to defend the ''[[Ummah]]'' (the collective [[Muslim world]]) from foreign [[Kafir|Non-Muslims]] and those that they perceive as [[Islam and other religions|domestic infidels]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Crenshaw |first=Martha |date=2017 |title=Transnational Jihadism & Civil Wars |url=https://direct.mit.edu/daed/article/146/4/59-70/27165 |journal=[[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus]] |publisher=[[MIT Press]] for the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] |volume=146 |issue=4 |pages=59–70 |doi=10.1162/DAED_a_00459 |issn=0011-5266}}</ref> The term "jihadist globalism" is also often used in relation to [[Islamic terrorism]] as a [[Globalism|globalist]] ideology, and more broadly to the [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Steger |author-first=Manfred B. |author-link=Manfred B. Steger |year=2011 |chapter=Jihadist Globalism versus Imperial Globalism: The Great Ideological Struggle of the Twenty-First Century? |title=The Rise of the Global Imaginary: Political Ideologies from the French Revolution to the Global War on Terror |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=213–248 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286942.003.0007 |isbn=9780191700408}}</ref> The Austrian-American academic [[Manfred B. Steger]], Professor of [[Sociology]] at the [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]], proposed an extension of the term "jihadist globalism" to apply to all extremely violent strains of religiously influenced ideologies that articulate the global imaginary into concrete political agendas and terrorist strategies; these include [[al-Qaeda]], [[Jemaah Islamiyah]], [[Hamas]], and [[Hezbollah]], which he finds "today's most spectacular manifestation of religious globalism".<ref>Steger, Manfred B. ''Globalization: A Short Introduction''. 2009. [[Oxford University Press]], p. 127.</ref>

===Compatibility with democracy===

====General Muslim views====
Western scholars [[John Esposito]] and [[Natana J. DeLong-Bas]] distinguish four attitudes toward sharia and democracy prominent among Muslims today:<ref>{{cite book|first1=John L.|last1=Esposito|first2=Natana J.|last2=DeLong-Bas|title=Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|pages=142–143}}</ref>

* Advocacy of democratic ideas, often accompanied by a belief that they are compatible with Islam, which can play a public role within a democratic system, as exemplified by many protestors who took part in the [[Arab Spring]] uprisings;
* Support for democratic procedures such as elections, combined with religious or moral objections toward some aspects of Western democracy seen as incompatible with sharia, as exemplified by Islamic scholars like [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]];
* Rejection of democracy as a Western import and advocacy of traditional Islamic institutions, such as ''[[shura]]'' (consultation) and ''[[ijma]]'' (consensus), as exemplified by supporters of absolute monarchy and radical Islamist movements;
* Belief that democracy requires restricting religion to private life, held by a minority in the Muslim world.

Polls conducted by [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] and [[Pew Research Center]] in [[Muslim-majority countries]] indicate that most Muslims see no contradiction between democratic values and religious principles, desiring neither a [[theocracy]], nor a [[secular democracy]], but rather a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of ''sharia''.<ref>{{cite book|first1=John L.|last1=Esposito|first2=Natana J.|last2=DeLong-Bas|title=Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|page=145}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Pew Research Center|title=Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life|date=July 10, 2012|url=https://www.pewglobal.org/2012/07/10/most-muslims-want-democracy-personal-freedoms-and-islam-in-political-life/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Gallup|title=Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible|date=Oct 3, 2017|author1=Magali Rheault|author2=Dalia Mogahed|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/28762/majorities-muslims-americans-see-religion-law-compatible.aspx}}</ref>

====Islamic political theories====
Muslih and Browers identify three major perspectives on democracy among prominent Muslims thinkers who have sought to develop modern, distinctly Islamic theories of socio-political organization conforming to Islamic values and law:<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Muslih|first1=Muhammad|last2=Browers|first2=Michaelle|title= Democracy |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0185|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611235451/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0185|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 11, 2017}}</ref>

* The rejectionist Islamic view, elaborated by [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]], [[Sayyid Qutb]] and [[Abul A'la Maududi]], condemns imitation of foreign ideas, drawing a distinction between [[Western democracy]] and the Islamic doctrine of ''[[shura]]'' (consultation between ruler and ruled). This perspective, which stresses comprehensive implementation of ''[[sharia]]'', was widespread in the 1970s and 1980s among various movements seeking to establish an [[Islamic state]], but its popularity has diminished in recent years.
* The moderate Islamic view stresses the concepts of ''[[maslaha]]'' (public interest), ''[[Adl|ʿadl]]'' (justice), and ''shura''. Islamic leaders are considered to uphold justice if they promote public interest, as defined through ''shura''. In this view, ''shura'' provides the basis for representative government institutions that are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than [[Western liberalism|Western liberal]] values. [[Hasan al-Turabi]], [[Rashid al-Ghannushi]], and [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]] have advocated different forms of this view.
* The [[Liberalism and progressivism within Islam|liberal Islamic]] view is influenced by [[Muhammad Abduh]]'s emphasis on the role of reason in understanding religion. It stresses [[Democracy|democratic]] principles based on [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] and [[freedom of thought]]. Authors like [[Fahmi Huwaidi]] and [[Tariq al-Bishri]] have constructed Islamic justifications for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic state by drawing on early Islamic texts. Others, like [[Mohammed Arkoun]] and [[Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd]], have justified pluralism and freedom through non-literalist approaches to textual interpretation. [[Abdolkarim Soroush]] has argued for a "[[religious democracy]]" based on religious thought that is democratic, tolerant, and just. Islamic liberals argue for the necessity of constant reexamination of religious understanding, which can only be done in a democratic context.

===20th and 21st centuries===
{{Main|1973 oil crisis|Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|Arab Cold War|Arab–Iranian conflict|Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab Spring|Arab Winter|War on Terror}}
{{Further|Antisemitism in the Arab world|Anti-Zionism|History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser|International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism|Iran-Saudi Arabia conflict|Petro-Islam|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world|Siege of Mecca in 1979|Six-Day War|Yom Kippur War|War of Attrition}}
[[File:Atatürk Kemal.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the [[founding father]] of the [[Republic of Turkey]], serving as its first [[President of Turkey|president]] from 1923 until his death in 1938. He undertook sweeping progressive [[Atatürk's Reforms|reforms]], which modernized Turkey into a secular, industrializing nation.<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/><ref>{{Citation |title=Atatürk, Kemal |date=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo |encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia |publisher=Philip's |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |isbn=9780199546091 |access-date=9 June 2019 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Books |first=Market House Books Market House |title=Atatürk, Kemal |date=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhointwentie00brig |work=Who's Who in the Twentieth Century |editor-last=Books |editor-first=Market House |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800916.001.0001 |isbn=9780192800916 |access-date=9 June 2019}}</ref>]]

Following [[World War I]], the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], and the subsequent [[abolition of the Caliphate]] by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], founder of the modern [[Republic of Turkey]],<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/> many Muslims perceived that the political power of their religion was in retreat. There was also concern that [[Westernization|Western ideas and influence were spreading]] throughout Muslim societies. This led to considerable resentment of the influence of the European powers. The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] was created in [[Egypt]] as a movement to resist and harry the British.

Between the 1950s and the 1960s, the predominant ideology within the [[Arab world]] was [[pan-Arabism]], which de-emphasized religion and encouraged the creation of [[Arab socialism|socialist]], [[secular state]]s based on [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]] ideologies such as [[Nasserism]] and [[Baathism]] rather than Islam.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Browers |author-first=Michaelle L. |year=2010 |chapter=Retreat from secularism in Arab nationalist and socialist thought |title=Political Ideology in the Arab World: Accommodation and Transformation |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |series=Cambridge Middle East Studies |volume=31 |pages=19–47 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511626814.003 |isbn=9780511626814 |lccn=2009005334 |s2cid=153779474}}</ref> However, governments based on Arab nationalism have found themselves facing [[economic stagnation]] and disorder. Increasingly, the borders of these states were seen as artificial colonial creations - which they were, having literally been drawn on a map by European colonial powers.

Today, many [[Islamism|Islamist]] and [[List of Islamic democratic political parties|Islamic democratic]] [[Political party|political parties]] exist in most [[Muslim-majority countries]], alongside numerous [[insurgent]] [[Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]], [[militant]] [[Islamism|Islamist]], and [[Islamic terrorism|terrorist]] movements and organizations.<ref name="Ayoob-Lussier 2020"/><ref name="Aydinli 2018"/><ref name="Badara 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Badara |first1=Mohamed |last2=Nagata |first2=Masaki |date=November 2017 |title=Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective |journal=[[Arab Law Quarterly]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=31 |issue=4 |doi=10.1163/15730255-12314024 |doi-access=free |issn=1573-0255 |pages=305–335}}</ref><ref name="Cook-Radical">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2015 |origyear=2005 |chapter=Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=Understanding Jihad |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |edition=2nd |pages=93–127 |isbn=9780520287327 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 |lccn=2015010201}}</ref><ref name="ZubaidahRahim 2006">{{cite journal |author-last=Zubaidah Rahim |author-first=Lily |year=2006 |title=Discursive Contest between Liberal and Literal Islam in Southeast Asia |editor1-last=Capano |editor1-first=Giliberto |editor2-last=Howlett |editor2-first=Michael P. |editor2-link=Michael P. Howlett |editor3-last=Jarvis |editor3-first=Darryl S. L. |editor4-last=Ramesh |editor4-first=M. |journal=[[Policy and Society]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=77–98 |doi=10.1016/S1449-4035(06)70091-1 |doi-access=free |issn=1839-3373 |lccn=2009205416 |oclc=834913646 |s2cid=218567875}}</ref> Both of the following terms, [[Islamic democracy]] and [[Islamic fundamentalism]], lump together a large variety of political groups with varying aims, histories, ideologies, and backgrounds.

====Contemporary movements====
Some common political currents in Islam include:
*[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|Traditionalism]], which accepts traditional commentaries on the [[Quran]], [[Hadith|''hadith'' literature]], and ''[[sunnah]]'', and "takes as its basic principle imitation (''[[taqlid]]''), that is, refusal to innovate", follows one of the [[Madhhab|four legal schools]] or ''Madh'hab'' ([[Shafiʽi school|Shafiʽi]], [[Maliki]], [[Hanafi]], [[Hanbali]]), and may include [[Sufism]]. An example of Sufi traditionalism is the [[Barelvi|Barelvi school]] in [[Pakistan]].<ref>Olivier Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'', (1994) pp.30–31</ref>
*[[Islamic fundamentalism|Fundamentalist reformism]] or [[Islamic revival|revivalism]], which criticizes the [[Kalam|Islamic scholastic tradition]], the [[Tafsir|commentaries]], popular religious practices such as [[Ziyarat|visitation to]] and [[Veneration#Islam|veneration]] of the [[Wali|shrines and tombs of Muslim saints]], perceived deviations and superstitions; it aims to return to the [[Islamic holy books|founding scriptures of Islam]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Arjomand |first=Said A. |title=The Search for Fundamentals |year=1995 |chapter=The Search for Fundamentals and Islamic Fundamentalism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx6hBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |editor1-last=van Vucht Tijssen |editor1-first=Lieteke |editor2-last=Berting |editor2-first=Jan |editor3-last=Lechner |editor3-first=Frank |location=[[Dordrecht]] |publisher=[[Springer Verlag]] |doi=10.1007/978-94-015-8500-2_2 |pages=27–39 |isbn=978-0-7923-3542-9}}</ref> This fundamentalist reformism generally developed in response to a perceived external threat (for example, the [[Hindu–Islamic relations|influence of Hinduism on Islam]]). 18th-century examples of fundamentalist Muslim reformers are [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] in [[British Raj|British India]]<ref name="Ibrahim 2006">{{cite journal |last=Ibrahim |first=Hassan Ahmed |date=January 2006 |title=Shaykh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and Shāh Walī Allāh: A Preliminary Comparison of Some Aspects of their Lifes and Careers |editor1-last=Son |editor1-first=Joonmo |editor2-last=Thompson |editor2-first=Eric C. |journal=Asian Journal of Social Science |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=103–119 |doi=10.1163/156853106776150126 |eissn=1568-5314 |issn=1568-4849 |jstor=23654402}}</ref> and [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] in the [[Arabian peninsula]],<ref name="Ibrahim 2006"/><ref name="Laoust2012">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Laoust |first=H. |title=Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb |orig-date=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref><ref name="Haykel2013">{{cite book |last=Haykel |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Haykel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA231 |chapter=Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703-92) |year=2013 |editor1-last=Böwering |editor1-first=Gerhard |editor1-link=Gerhard Böwering |editor2-last=Crone |editor2-first=Patricia |editor2-link=Patricia Crone |editor3-last=Kadi |editor3-first=Wadad |editor4-last=Mirza |editor4-first=Mahan |editor5-last=Stewart |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-link=Devin J. Stewart |editor6-last=Zaman |editor6-first=Muhammad Qasim |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton, NJ]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=231–232 |isbn=978-0-691-13484-0 |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Esposito2004">{{cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |year=2004 |title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA123 |chapter=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791) |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=123 |isbn=0-19-512559-2 |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Oxford2020">{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712051853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916 |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 12, 2016 |title=Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online |date=2020 |website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref> founder of the Islamic doctrine and movement known as [[Wahhabism]].<ref name="Laoust2012" /><ref name="Haykel2013" /><ref name="Esposito2004" /><ref name="Oxford2020" /><ref>Olivier Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'' (1994), p. 31.</ref> [[Salafi movement|Salafism]] and [[Wahhabism]] [[International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism|worldwide]], the [[Deobandi|Deobandi school]] in [[South Asia]] (mainly [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]), [[Ahl-i Hadith]] and [[Tablighi Jamaat]] in [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and Pakistan are modern examples of fundamentalist reformism and revivalism.
*[[Islamism]] or [[political Islam]], embracing a return to the ''[[sharia]]'' or Islamic law but adopting Western terminology such as [[revolution]], [[ideology]], [[politics]], and [[democracy]], and taking a more liberal attitude towards issues like ''[[jihad]]'' and [[women's rights]].<ref>Olivier Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'' (1994), pp. 35-37.</ref> Contemporary examples include the [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami]], [[Muslim Brotherhood]], [[Iranian Revolution|Iranian Islamic Revolution]], [[Masyumi]] party, [[United Malays National Organisation]], [[Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party]] and [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)]].
*[[Liberalism and progressivism within Islam|Liberal and progressive movements within Islam]] generally define themselves in opposition to Islamist and Islamic fundamentalist political movements, but often embrace many of their [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] and Islam-inspired liberal reformist elements.<ref name="Kurzman 1998">{{cite book |author-last=Kurzman |author-first=Charles |author-link=Charles Kurzman |year=1998 |chapter=Liberal Islam and Its Islamic Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA1 |editor-last=Kurzman |editor-first=Charles |title=Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=1–26 |isbn=9780195116229 |oclc=37368975}}</ref> Liberal Muslims affirm the promotion of progressive values such as [[democracy]], [[gender equality]], [[human rights]], [[LGBT rights]], [[women's rights]], [[religious pluralism]], [[Interfaith marriage in Islam|interfaith marriage]],<ref name="Leeman 2009">{{cite journal |last=Leeman |first=A. B. |date=Spring 2009 |title=Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions |url=https://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Indiana Law Journal]] |location=[[Bloomington, Indiana]] |publisher=[[Indiana University Maurer School of Law]] |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=743–772 |issn=0019-6665 |s2cid=52224503 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123062516/https://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2018 |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Jahangir2017">{{cite news |last=Jahangir |first=Junaid |date=21 March 2017 |title=Muslim Women Can Marry Outside The Faith |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/junaid-jahangir/muslim-women-marriage_b_15472982.html |url-status=live |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325020231/https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/junaid-jahangir/muslim-women-marriage_b_15472982.html |archive-date=25 March 2017 |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref> [[freedom of expression]], [[freedom of thought]], and [[freedom of religion]];<ref name="Kurzman 1998"/> opposition to [[theocracy]] and total rejection of Islamism and Islamic fundamentalism;<ref name="Kurzman 1998" /> and a modern view of [[Islamic theology]], [[Islamic ethics|ethics]], ''[[sharia]]'', [[Islamic culture|culture]], tradition, and other ritualistic practices in Islam.<ref name="Kurzman 1998" /> Liberal Islam emphasizes the re-interpretation of the Islamic scriptures in order to preserve their relevance in the 21st century.<ref name="ZubaidahRahim 2006" /><ref name="Kurzman 1998" />

====Shīʿa—Sunnī differences====
{{Main|Shia–Sunni relations}}
{{Further|Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|Sectarian violence among Muslims}}

According to the [[Iranian-American]] academic [[Vali Nasr]], which serves as Majid Khaddouri Professor of International Affairs and Middle East Studies at the [[Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies]] (SAIS), political tendencies of [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa]] and [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]] Islamic ideologies differ, with [[Islamic fundamentalism|Sunnī fundamentalism]] "in [[Pakistan]] and much of the [[Arab world]]" being "far from politically revolutionary", primarily focused on attempting to [[Islamization|Islamicize]] the political establishment rather than trying to change it through revolutionary struggle, whereas the Shīʿīte conception of [[political Islam]] is strongly influenced by [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] and his talk of the oppression of the poor and class war, which characterized the success of the [[Islamic Revolution]] in [[Iran]] (1978–1979):<ref name="Nasr 2007" />

{{Blockquote
|text=With the [[Iranian Revolution|Shia awakening of Iran]], the years of sectarian tolerance were over. What followed was a Sunni-versus-Shia contest for dominance, and it grew intense. [...] The revolution even moved leftists in [[Muslim-majority countries]] such as [[Indonesia]], [[Turkey]], and [[Lebanon]] to look at Islam with renewed interest. After all, in Iran, Islam had succeeded where leftist ideologies had failed. [...] But admiration for what had happened in Iran did not equal acceptance of Iranian leadership. Indeed, Islamic activists outside of Iran quickly found Iranian revolutionaries to be arrogant, offputting, and drunk on their own success. Moreover, [[Islamic fundamentalism|Sunni fundamentalism]] in [[Pakistan]] and much of the [[Arab world]] was far from politically revolutionary. It was rooted in conservative religious impulses and the bazaars, mixing mercantile interests with religious values. As the French scholar of contemporary Islam [[Gilles Kepel]] puts it, it was less to tear down the existing system than to give it a fresh, thick coat of "Islamic green" paint. [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Khomeini]]'s [[Islamic fundamentalism in Iran|fundamentalism]], by contrast, was "red"—that is, genuinely revolutionary.<ref name="Nasr 2007" />
}}

The American [[political analyst]] and author [[Graham E. Fuller]], specialized in the study of [[Islamism]] and [[Islamic extremism]], has also noted that he found "no mainstream Islamist organization (with the exception of [Shīʿa] Iran) with radical social views or a revolutionary approach to the social order apart from the imposition of legal justice."<ref>Fuller, Graham E., ''The Future of Political Islam'', Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.26</ref>

====Guardianship of the Jurist of Shi'i Islam====
{{see|Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist}}
Guardianship of the Jurist (''Wilāyat al-Faqīh'') is a concept in [[Twelver]] [[Shia Islam]]ic [[sharia|law]] that holds that in the [[Occultation (Islam)|absence]] of (what Twelvers believe is) the religious and political leader of Islam—the "infallible [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imam]]", who Shi'a believe will reappear sometime before [[Judgement Day in Islam|Judgement Day]]) -- righteous Shi'i jurists (''[[faqīh]]''),<ref name="JoAOS-1991-549">{{cite journal |title=Review by Hossein Modarressi, by THE JUST RULER OR THE GUARDIAN JURIST: AN ATTEMPT TO LINK TWO DIFFERENT SHICITE CONCEPTS by Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=July–September 1991 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=549–562 |jstor=604271 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/604271 |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> should administer "some" of the "religious and social affairs" of the Shi'i community. In its "absolute" form—the form advanced by the [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]]<ref name="VeF-Encyclo.com">{{cite web |last1=Algar |first1=Hamid |last2=Hooglund |first2=Eric |title=VELAYAT-E FAQIH Theory of governance in Shiʿite Islam. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/velayat-e-faqih |website=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> and the basis of government in [[History of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Islamic Republic of Iran]]—the state and society are ruled by an Islamic jurist ([[Ali Khamenei]] as of 2022).

A variation of [[Islamism]], the theory holds that since [[sharia]] law has everything needed to rule a state (whether ancient or modern),<ref name=IaR1981:137-8>[[#IaR1981|Khomeini, ''Islamic Government'', 1981]]: p.137-8</ref> and any other basis of governance will lead to injustice and sin,<ref name=IaR1981:31-33>[[#IaR1981|Khomeini, ''Islamic Government'', 1981]]: p.31-33</ref> a state must be ruled according to sharia and the person who should rule is an expert in sharia.<ref>Abrahamian, Ervand, ''Khomeinism : Essays on the Islamic Republic'' by Ervand Abrahamian, p.34-5</ref>

The theory of [[sovereignty]] of the Guardianship of the Jurist (in fact of all Islam) explained by at least one conservative Shi'i scholar ([[Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi]]), is contrasted with the theory of sovereignty in "most of the schools of political philosophy and other cultures". Non-Muslim cultures hold that "every man is free", and in democratic cultures in particular, "sovereignty ... belongs to the people". A ruler and government must have the consent of the governed to have [[Legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]]. Whereas in fact, sovereignty is God's. The "entire universe and whatever in it belongs to God ... the Exalted, and all their movements and acts must have to be in accordance with the command or prohibition of the Real Owner". Consequently, human beings "have no right to rule over others or to choose someone to rule", i.e. choose someone to rule themselves.<ref name="Cursory-2010">{{cite book |last1=Mesbah-Yazdi |first1=Mohammad-Taqi |editor1-first=Sayyid ‘Abbas |editor1-last=Husayni |title=A Cursory Glance at the Theory of Wilayat al-Faqih |date=2010 |publisher=Ahlul Bayt World Assembly/Al-Islam.org |url=https://www.al-islam.org/cursory-glance-theory-wilayat-al-faqih-muhammad-taqi-misbah-yazdi/chapter-1-wilayat-al-faqih |access-date=25 August 2022 |chapter=1: Wilayat al-Faqih, Exigency and Presuppositions}}</ref> In an Islamic state, rule must be according to God's law and the ruler must be best person to enforce God's law. The people's "consent and approval" are valuable for developing and strengthening the Islamic government but irrelevant for its legitimacy.<ref name="Cursory-2010"/>